Prof. Hravard HACOBIAN, PH.D.
Dr. Emma KORKHMAZIAN, PH.D.

1.	INTRODUCTION
2.	THE ART OF MINIATURE IN THE 5th-7th CENTURIES
3.	THE ART OF MINIATURE IN THE 10th-11th CENTURIES
4.	THE ART OF MINIATURE IN THE 12th-13th CENTURIES
5.	THE SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF HIGHER ARMENIA
6.	THE SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF THE ARMENIAN KINGDOM OF CILICIA
7.	THE SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF GLADZOR
8.	THE SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF NAKHIJEVAN
9.	THE SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF VASPURAKAN
10.	THE ARMENIAN MINIATURE PAINTING IN THE 15th CENTURY
11.	THE SCHOOLS OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF THE ARMENIAN COMMUNITIES OF DIASPORA
12.	THE ARMENIAN MINIATURE PAINTING IN THE 17th CENTURY

1. INTRODUCTION

The art of manuscript illumination occupies a prominent place in the cultural heritage of the Armenian people. Medieval painting finds here its brightest expression, reflecting the highest medieval aesthetical principles and the distinctive features of the Armenian artistic mentality. The manuscript painting forms a special branch of art, works of which are better preserved than those of wall painting, the latter being strongly damaged as a result of historical disasters.

The most part (11.000 items) of Armenian preserved manuscripts are now kept in the depository of the Mashtots Matenadaran, Research Institute of Ancients Manuscripts. Miniature painting is perfectly presented in this collection of medieval manuscripts. Several other collections of Armenian manuscripts are spread all over the world. The depositories of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, those of the Mekhitarist Congregations in Venice and Vienna, and of the Saint-Saviour monastery of New-Julfa (Iran) are the largest ones. Other manuscripts are included in the collections of well-known museums and libraries worldwide. The Matenadaran collection provides us with all the necessary material to present the development of the Armenian manuscript illumination as a whole.




The Armenian miniature painting originates with the invention of Armenian alphabet (405) and the development of written literature. The oldest specimens date back to the 5^th-7^th centuries. Although the first Armenian printed book is published in 1512, the tradition of manuscript writing persists until the 19^th century. So, the arts of calligraphy and manuscript illumination are characterized by an incessant development of about 1.500 years in Armenia.  In the course of time, dispersed centres of manuscript writing experience periods of flourishing and decline, the dominating role passes from one to another at different moments of history.  But still, each period makes its own contribution to the history of manuscript illumination.

First phases of development of the Armenian miniature painting can be studied on the basis of preserved fragments of manuscripts. Among them we can mention four miniatures of the 6^th-7^th centuries preserved as separate folios sewed at the end of the Echmiadzin Gospel (Mat. No 2374). The excellent execution of the miniatures shows the existence of already deep-rooted artistic traditions in early medieval Armenia.  The miniatures are executed in a solemn and

Echmiadzin Gospel 6th-7th centuries Ms. 2374, f. 228r

monumental style, the colour range being bright and saturated.  The ornamented colonnades, following the principles of real sacred architecture, as well as the poses and clothing of figures witness the persistence of antic artistic traditions.  Noteworthy is also their similarity to the contemporary monumental painting, particularly the 7^th century wall painting of the monastery of Lmbat.

In the 6^th-7^th centuries, the artistic life was quite active in Armenia. It is testified not only by architectural monuments, their lavish decoration (sculpture, wall painting) and miniature painting, but also by written sources. In this regard, dogmatic disputes engaging the question whether it should be permitted or not to represent God (so called Iconoclasm movement) are of great interest. Thus, Vertanes Kertogh, a 7^th century author, intervene in his treatise called On Iconoclasm in defence of cult images, thus certifying the presence of advanced artistic tradition in early medieval Armenia.




Our knowledge about the miniature painting of the 10^th-11^th centuries is more complete. For Armenia it was a period of political growth when, freed from the Arabic yoke, the country enters a new era of flourishing. Evolution is observed both in sciences, art and literature.

The Matenadaran keeps a considerable number of precious samples of miniature painting created then. Regarding their general features and stylistic execution, miniatures of that period can be classified into two groups. The manuscripts of the first group stand out for the richness of their ornamentation and brilliant execution, being related with royal scriptoria or large monastic centres. Oderers of those manuscripts are, as a rule, representatives of upper social and ecclesiastical classes who can appeal to the professionalism of skilled miniaturists and provide them with expensive materials.

Gospel of Moughni 11th century Ms. 3793, f. 3v

Among the Matenadaran manuscripts of the above-mentioned group are the Gospel of Echmiadzin of 989 (No 2374), the Gospel of Moughni of the 11^th century (No 7736), the Gospel of 1053 adorned by Hovhannes Sandeghkavanetsi (No 3793) and others. The miniatures of the Echmiadzin Gospel with their rich, fresh and delicate colours catch our eye by elevated solemnity and eminent festivity of the entire set of ornamentation. Miniatures representing Christ, Apostles and the Virgin with the Child remind early specimens of wall painting of the Christian East. The colour range of the Gospel of Moughni is more reserved. That cannot prevent us to say that we are in presence of another lavish and solemn work of art of the Bagratides dynasty period. The entire ornamentation of the Gospel testifies to the sophisticated taste of the artists and of their rich client.  The blue colour prevailing the colour range is supplemented by moderate use of gold and silver. The narrative cycle occurring in this Gospel is among the earliest ones in the history of Armenian miniature painting.

Contrarily to richly ornamented manuscripts, in provincial scriptoria of the country somewhat more modest manuscripts used to be written and adorned by the scribes themselves. Expensive materials, bright and saturated colours, abundant use of gold and silver, skilfully treated details are no more typical for this group of manuscripts. However, due to their simplicity and laconic means of expression, those miniatures are noteworthy for their spontaneous character and faithfulness to more ancient artistic traditions. The Gospel of 1038 (Mat. No 6201), the Gospel of the Catholicos of the 10^th century (Mat. No 10780) and some other manuscripts represent this group.  

Several other manuscripts of the Matenadaran, created in Sebastia and the scriptoria of Melitena, can be stylistically related with those of the previous group. T. A. Izmailova states that the miniatures of these works are of exceptional interest for the study of early medieval iconography, since they preserve the archaic order of the Gospel narrative cycle.

Gospel 11th century Ms. 10780, f. 5r

The invading campaigns of Seljuk Turks become ravaging for the social life of the country. Destroyed economy and mass emigration of the population to other countries strongly confines the artistic life of Armenia. It is only natural that a relatively limited number of manuscripts have come down to us from that period. Even so, separate scriptoria continue their activity in different regions of the country, especially in Western provinces. The artistic output of these scriptoria is represented today by a small number of manuscripts that attract our attention by their original decoration (Mat. No 2877 and No 6462).




A new growth of cultural life is observed at the end of the 12^th and the beginning of the 13^th century, when reigns the Armenian dynasty of Zakarides.  The capital Ani goes through a new era of flourishing. The impressive ruins of once sumptuous buildings of the city can be admired even now, on the right bank of the Akhourian, near the border of the Republic of Armenia. Their architecture is not sufficiently studied. It is difficult to give a complete idea neither of the miniature painting that develops in Ani, nor of its centres of manuscript writing, since only a few manuscripts occasionally survive from those which are created in the scriptoria of this ancient capital of Armenia. Markaré and Ignatios are two painters who work in Ani. Markare illuminates the manuscript Mat. No 6288 entitled Gospel of Haghpat after the monastery where it is written. The manuscript text is copied in 1211 by the order of a rich citizen called Sahak. Shortly after, delivered to Ani, it is enriched with miniatures.

The painted folios belonging to the brush of Markare are now among those samples that form a new trend in the Armenian miniature painting connected with the active development of urban culture. It is characterized by new tendencies to enlarge scenes and give them realistic treatment, to introduce genre details and enrich with secular motifs and everyday elements. These features are part of the general secularisation that penetrates all the Armenian culture of the time. In the margins of the Gospel of Haghpat one can see a folk-singer depicted holding his instrument under a grenade tree, as well as numerous portraits of painter’s contemporaries. Their conspicuously treated clothes are of great interest for the study of traditional Armenian costumes. The only narrative scene is the Entry into Jerusalem, almost rendered as an everyday episode, where a crowd of citizens welcome a notable. The atmosphere in these miniatures is thoroughly joyful and festive.

The works of the second miniaturist, Ignatios, are of similar interest. They include ornamental setting characterized by infallible taste and masterful execution. At present, two manuscripts adorned by Ignatios are kept in the Matenadaran. Especially noteworthy is the Gospel of 1232 (Mat. No 1519). Written in large uncials, it has an unusual size (42 x 29) and lavish, classically executed title pages.  

In the 1230-40-ies a new disaster encounter the destiny of the Armenian people. The Mongolian invasion begins leading to new mass migration and new displacement of manuscript.  Even now, it is extremely difficult to determine the location of scriptoria where manuscripts are written, since their main colophons rarely survive. The Targmanchats Gospel  (Mat. No 2743) decorated by Grigor dates back to 1232.  Despite their strongly individual character, the twelve miniatures of the Gospel are related with the art of Upper Armenia, as well as with wall painting preserved in cave churches of Cappadocia immediately adjacent to this region. The figures are remarkably expressive with their deep dark eyes shadowed by almost black circles. Their looks are full of sorrow, so that sometimes they seem even tragic. Both faces and tense poses of the figures, together with saturated blue and red colours, emphasize the inner dramatic character of the depicted scenes. The miniaturist succeeds in creating a striking impression by means of few artistic devices. Dark and dense colours acquire unusual expressiveness through dispersed use of red and rose flashes.

The Matenadaran keeps two other manuscripts of the beginning the 13^th century, which are also of great interest and similar to the production of Higher Armenia: the Gospel of 1201  (No 10359) and the Homilies of Mush (No 7729), which is the largest Armenian manuscript (70,5 x 55,5). In the artistic décor of these manuscripts the prevailing motif is that of vegetal ornaments. They dominate, serving as patterns for some marginal ornaments as well. Extreme variety of forms characterise the ornamental motifs: interlacing, palmettos, volutes, combination of both fantastic and real forms borrowed from flora and fauna. The decoration of this manuscript is a joint effort of three different masters. Unfortunately, the colophon preserves the name of only one of them, Stepanos, who executes the title page and partly the marginal ornaments, especially those having linear character. Miniatures by one of the two unknown masters are numerous. They reveal the painter’s strong and passionate personality. The miniaturist largely distributes diverse vegetal forms within the manuscript marginal space interlacing with them both real and imaginary animal motifs. The linear plasticity is supplemented by use of rich and bright colours, thanks to which the marginal ornaments seem especially vivid.  The painter prefers contrasts of colours: the orange is set off by cinnamon brown, the blue by dense and velvety “lapis-lazuli”.

Few narrative miniatures belong to the brush of the third miniaturist of the Homilies of Mush. Somewhat softened tones and expressive visages and poses form the distinctive features of that unknown artist’s work.  The marginal ornaments, always dissimilar, bright and delightful, are the most impressive part of the manuscript décor. Although stylised, many of them reproduce quite faithfully real plants, so that one can easily recognize the grenade, fig- and almond- trees, in addition to various flowers, such as liana, lotus, lily and others.  Since many of these motifs can be found in ancient medical manuscripts, several scientists suppose that the type of marginal ornaments found in the Homilies of Mush and similar manuscripts, could originate from medieval medical books.

5. THE SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF HIGHER ARMENIA

Illuminated manuscripts of Higher Armenia often strongly differ from each other by their style. This is but natural for the cultural life of the 13^th-14^th centuries, a period characterized by a new activity of public life, when entire stratums of society become involved in social movements. On the crossroads of main commercial routes going East and West, the entire province is an important economic centre and meeting point for caravans, foreign merchants and Armenian migrants from other provinces.  The history of this region is rich and complex. So is its art. Several illuminated manuscripts from the collection of the Matenadaran show relations with the art of the Palaeologan Renaissance. This is especially true for the manuscripts written at the beginning of the 14^th century (Mat. No 7630, No 7599 and others). Their miniatures are significant for their free composition and refined treatment of forms, despite somewhat limited means, as well as neatly shaded execution.  

The art of Higher Armenia is furthermore influenced by the tradition of miniature painting of the Cilician Kingdom of Armenia, the best specimens of which are kept in the collection of the Matenadaran.




The art of the Cilician Armenia exceedingly flourishes during the 12^th-13^th centuries and influences the entire development of the Armenian national culture. After the fall of Higher Armenia under the yoke of Seljuk Turks, the population goes anew into exile. Many settle down in Asia Minor, on the northeastern coast of the Mediterranean. The Roubenides dynasty, which becomes powerful there, shortly after founds the independent Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Close contacts with the most important Mediterranean commercial centres, auspicious geographical location and relatively calm life conditions promote the active development of art and culture. The Matenadaran keeps now several masterpieces of Cilician miniature painting, such as works by Toros Roslin, the Lectionary of Hetum II, the Gospel of Smbat the Constable, the Gospel of Eight Artists, manuscripts illuminated by Sarkis Pitzak and others. The miniatures of these manuscripts are not only among the best achievements of Armenian medieval miniature, they are counted amongst masterpieces of world art as well. 

Wonderful imagination of Cilician miniaturists, sublime execution of subjects, harmony of drawing and colour continue to astonish the eye of a viewer even nowadays.  The works of the Cilician masters, well known in other centres of manuscript writing, are used as models. They are reproduced many times to cultivate the taste of young artists.

Toros Roslin is the most remarkable Cilician miniaturist. Two of his illuminated Gospels are now kept in the Matenadaran (No 10450, No 10675). Furthermore, professor S. Der-Nersessian discovers separate folios of a 13^th century Gospel, sewed between the pages of a manuscript written in the 14^th century in Vaspurakan (Mat. No 5458). She supposes that these older folios belong to the brush of Toros Roslin.  

The artistic heritage of Toros Roslin opens a new era in the history of Armenian miniature painting. Being well acquainted with Byzantine and Latin arts, he creates spiritually powerful works reflecting perfect synthesis of both national and Byzantine artistic traditions.  The human figures are full of life in his miniatures. The painter tries to represent them in different psychological moods: observation, silent reflection, meditation, sorrow, joy and dynamical activity. Faces show spiritual beauty and profound inspiration. The artist’s approach to book illumination is quite unconventional. His miniatures occupy sometimes the entire surface of page, sometimes only part of it, and in other cases they are incorporated to the text, being each time in perfect harmony with the decorative ensemble.

Works of several Cilician artists who follow the principles elaborated by Toros Roslin marks the end of the 13^th century. Many of them reach a high degree of perfection. The scenes of the narrative cycle are represented in complex and multifaceted compositions where the figures are given in intricate perspectives. The peaceful and delicate colouring of Toros Roslin’s miniatures gives way to a general tension that is seen both in graphical and colouristic treatments. The cloth folds seem to be swept by the wind, at the same time losing nothing of their elegance. The gold is richly used on the borderlines of the clothes. The art of gilding is not easy. The Cilician miniaturists are especially skilful in using different nuances of gold, combining gilded surfaces with colours of their bright and rich palette. The mentioned artistic methods contribute to extraordinary luxury and lavishness of the Cilician miniatures.

Cilician artists reach exceptional mastery in the field of ornamentation reflecting their inexhaustible fantasy. Skilfulness in creating diverse types of ornaments is matched by a similar ability to conceive individual human characters. The Cilician painters represent their contemporaries too, for example, famous manuscript purchasers and representatives of royal families. The self-portraits are equally frequent. Ability to correctly represent human body and to give it a voluminous aspect characterises the works of Cilician masters. All observed tendencies permitted L.A. Dournovo to say that they  “give evidence of a particular attention paid by the Cilician artists to the European Renaissance”. 

At the beginning of the 14^th century certain decline and penchant to more conventional style are observed in the Cilician miniature painting. Sarkis Pitzak is the most celebrated artist of that period. During his fruitful artistic career, the painter illuminates more than 50 manuscripts. Supple and firm lines become predominant in his illumination technique. The artist uses it both for the figures and the ornamental parts. The life-period of this remarkable artist is an era of artistic research and transformation, which does not come to his end, since the development of the Cilician artistic life is interrupted. In 1375 the Cilician Armenian Kingdom falls under attacks of Egyptian Mamlukes. New disasters encounter the Armenian population. Taking the way of new painful exile, people try to save and carry away cultural treasures, including illuminated manuscripts.

Despite monstrous conditions under foreign yoke, the Armenian culture continues its development in Armenia and out of its borders. This particular period is characterized by increasing activity of medieval Armenian universities.  At the end of the 13th century the University of Gladzor becomes popular and acquires the reputation of  “Second Athens” among contemporaries. Many manuscripts are studied and copied in this university, in addition to new precious treatises in different fields of sciences created here.  The Gladzor centre of manuscript illumination is of great importance too. Famous artists like Sarkis and Momik are among the miniaturists of this school. The latter is known for his equal achievements in the arts of miniature painting, sculpture and architecture. Another well-known artist, Toros Taronatsi is miniaturist, scribe and poet. Avag is scribe, miniaturist and bookbinder.

7. THE SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF GLADZOR

The school of miniature painting of Gladzor is known for characteristic fusion of artistic tradition of Armenia proper with that of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia.  The local traditions remain, however, dominating. Folios of manuscripts illuminated in Gladzor show persistence of symbols and motifs coming from pagan sources: totemic notions, personifications of natural phenomena, vestiges of mystical rite and remnants of mythological themes. They are astonishingly interpreted especially in the works of Toros Taronatsi. He shows exceeding inclination for fantastic ornamental motifs. Within Canon Tables (khorans) and marginal ornaments one can find fantastic sirens (sometimes double-headed), personifications of god and evil, fighting snakes and dragons, sometimes lacerating their victims, more often defeated by the courageous warriors sanctified by the Christian Church.   Originating from old cults and pagan beliefs, all these motifs are successfully adopted and reinterpreted in the Middle Ages, becoming symbols of the Christian art.

The career of painter Avag is also related with the University of Gladzor. Yet, he is an itinerant painter who works not only in Gladzor, but in Iran and Cilicia as well. Certain strong influences of the Cilician tradition are traced in the works of this artist, who spends a considerable part of his artistic life in Cilicia and illuminates a Gospel together with celebrated miniaturist Saris Pitzak (Mat. N° 7631).  Among manuscripts adorned by Avag and kept in the Matenadaran, the Gospel of 1337 (Mat. N° 212) is especially distinguishing for its rich ornamentation and perfect technical mastery. The miniatures of Avag are fascinating thanks to their solemn style, delicate colour range supplemented by temperate use of gold.

In the 1340-ies the University of Gladzor ceases to exist, handing forward its rich traditions to other monastic schools, such as Tatev, Metzop and others. The University of Tatev gets a particular importance when Grigor Tatevatsi, celebrated philosopher and painter, directs it. The Gospel of 1297 (Mat. N° 7482) kept in the Matenadaran, is enriched by Grigor Tatevatsi in 1378 by several narrative miniatures, portraits of Evangelists and title pages. The most distinguishing feature consists in skilful  use of ornamental folk motifs. The background of his paintings is almost entirely covered by large ornaments in tender hues. Contrarily to the ornamental part, the figures are treated with a more saturated colour range and show a calm majesty. 

Wide use of ornaments and similar technical treatment are characteristic for the miniatures of the Gospel illuminated by an unknown artist at the beginning of the 15^th century (Mat. No 6305). Contrarily to the previous manuscript, where the ornamental parts serve only as background for figurative scenes, here we are in presence of a real symphony of decorative forms characterized by extreme diversity of linear and colouristic solutions.  The ornaments fill not only the entire surface of the background, but architectural details and furniture as well; the clothes are thoroughly covered by tiny floral patterns. Choice of various themes, expressiveness and emotional character of acting personages, supplemented by tender colours, make the miniatures particularly luxurious. The artist pays a particular attention to the representation of the warrior saints canonized by the Christian Church. Each of them, and there are four of them, occupies a separate folio. The depiction of warrior saints within the Gospel illumination is not occasional. They are quite popular in medieval Christian art, and particularly that of Armenia. It is but natural for the art of a nation that suffers through its history of numerous invading campaigns. People refer to these personages as to protectors, representing them in visual arts and devoting to them numerous folk poems.   

Recently, scientists succeeded in definition and localisation of another distinctive school of miniature painting, that of Artsakh-Outik. The provinces of Artsakh and the neighbouring Outik (northern and northeastern coast of the Lake Sevan, corresponding to nowadays’ region of Taush and the Republic of Nagorny Karabakh) are for a long time one of the most important political centres of Armenia. Beginning from the end of the 12^th century a renewal of social and cultural life, contributing to the development of arts is observed in the province. This favourable situation is conditioned, on the one hand, by a new need of national unification, after the liberation of the northeastern provinces from Seljuk Turks yoke by Zakarides, and on the other hand, thanks to perspicacious diplomacy of Armenian governors. So, foundation of new monasteries and construction of new buildings become possible, the existing monastic schools extend significantly their activities. Numerous manuscripts are illuminated there and they remind us of the artistic traditions of Siunic and, mainly, Ani. However, certain stylistic and iconographic features witness the persistence of strong local traditions, as well as wide use of principles of folk art. Reserved interpretation of scenes and forms, plane and conventional treatment of personages, inner tension and originality of colouristic solutions contribute to the emotional character of the Artsakh-Outik miniatures. The colour range is mainly based on the combination of red and violet hues that provides the miniatures by a special romantic character. Especially noteworthy are the Gospel of Vakhtang Khachentsi written in 1212 (Mat. N° 378), the Gospel of Khoranashat written in 1224 (Mat. N° 4823) and a manuscript of the 13^th century (Mat. N° 155), which is a Fragment of the Bible for the impression of strength and austerity they give.

8. THE SCHOOL OF MINIATURE PAINTING OF NAKHIJEVAN

The manuscripts written in the scriptoria of Nakhijevan show strong relationship with the artistic traditions of Artsakh and Vaspurakan. Manuscripts of this group are characterized by archaistic iconography, preference given to laconic compositions and reserved colours. Miniaturists of Nakhijevan used to place in the manuscript margins subjects and scenes, reminding genre painting. These miniatures preserve local colour and constitute authentic sources for the study of habit and customs of that particular period.

If the relatively calm and favourable conditions in the northeastern provinces are due to the clever diplomacy of Armenian princely houses, on the southwestern provinces of the country there are other reasons for such advantageous situation. The activity of the cultural life is related there with considerable changes taking place in the field of social and economic dealings. The Mongolian empire established in occupied lands promotes the development of commercial contacts for its proper profit. The chief commercial routes run across the southern provinces, animating the life in cities. Once belonging to the Vaspurakan kingdom, monastic schools and scriptoria continue to function in the province of Nakhijevan even under the Mongol yoke. Numerous manuscripts illuminated in these centres have come down to us.

9. THE SCHOOL OF MINATURE PAINTING OF VASPURAKAN

The school of miniature painting of Vaspurakan is the most significant one considering the number of illuminated manuscripts. About 1.500 manuscripts written in the scriptoria of Vaspurakan exist till now.

The artistic decoration of the Vaspurakan manuscripts has its characteristic features. Miniatures of this school preserve better than others archaic local traditions. Thanks to that the Vaspurakan miniatures acquire more originality due, on the one hand, to their style and technical execution, and, on the other hand, to interpretation of scenes and acting figures.

In the northern centres (Arjesh, Artske, Berkri), the first stage of miniature painting includes the period from the 1270-ies up to the first decade of the 14^th century. The most distinguishing artists who work then are Simeon Arjishetsi, Hovsian, Vardan, Melkisedec whose works define the original style of Vaspurakan miniatures: special decorativeness, plane solutions, subdued compositions, expressive contour lines.

Beginning with the second half of the 14^th century, scriptoria of central and south provinces of Vaspurakan (Aghtamar, Vostan, Khlat, Khizan) acquire more significance. The style of illumination evolves to conventionalism. Together with elements borrowed from folk art, symbolism and dogmatism acquire importance of principle, thus defining the main iconographic criteria of this artistic school.

Yet, the original style of Vaspurakan miniature is definitely worked out only in the 14^th-15^th centuries. Compositions and figure interpretations are flat, while the vivid contour line remains the main artistic means. Miniaturists freely dispose of strictly contoured figures that they distribute on the entire surface of the page, either in simple horizontal composition or on superimposed levels, ignoring the principles of spatial perspective.

Common iconographic principles of Vaspurakan miniatures partly originate from traditions of folk art, as well as folklore notions that do not contradict the aesthetical principles of Christian art.  The main concern of artists is the simple and narrative reproduction of Gospel scenes, accentuation of their semantic content. Pagan motifs, mythological themes, personifications of dying and resurrecting forces of nature are equally frequent in Vaspourakan miniatures. Zacharia Aghtamartsi, Hovhannes Khizantsi, Tzeroun, Restakes, Mekertich, Khachatur, Grigor, Nerses are among the most distinguishing artists working in the scriptoria of Vaspurakan in the 14^th-15^th centuries. Their works reflect, on the one hand, prevailing principles of decorative and conventionally symbolic forms and, on the other hand, the spontaneity of popular art.  Religious canonical themes are interpreted using simple and laconic forms tending to emphasize the key meaning of represented scenes. Ornaments acquire great significance as well.

10. THE ARMENIAN MINIATURE PAINTING IN THE 15^th CENTURY

Minas is the most remarkable artist working in the second half of the 15^th century. His creative production marks a turning point in the history of Vaspurakan school of miniature painting. Simplicity and spontaneity give way to complex compositions and sophisticated style. The works of 15^th century artists show more professionalism, refined and clear iconography; the décor becomes luxurious, it is supplemented by use of gold, uncommon for miniatures of the previous period.  All these features joint with artistic traditions of earlier centuries become characteristic also for the miniature painting of Vaspurakan in the 16^th-17^th centuries, which evolves within canonical schemes elaborated previously.  Works of several artists have come down to us from that period. They demonstrate tendencies to emotional expressiveness and introduction of elements of every-day life providing the scenes with new vivacity and dynamism. The intensive cultural development could result into transition to a new artistic era, but it is interrupted by new political disasters.




In the history of Armenian visual arts, works created in the Armenian communities, often far from the borders of Armenia, occupy peculiar position. Unfavourable conditions and repeated invasions of aliens constrain Armenian population to go again and again into exile. As a result, at some stage of their history, Armenian communities of the Diaspora assume even a leading role in the development of national culture, particularly after the loss of sovereignty. Developing in foreign environment and under new conditions, the Armenian art is therefore based on the synthesis of national traditions and artistic features borrowed from the cultural heritage of other people and new neighbours.

Numerous illuminated manuscripts created in the Crimea have come down to us. This Armenian community subsists from the 13^th to the 18^th century. Representatives of the Crimean Armenian community make a considerable contribution to the development of their own national culture, as well as that of other nations populating the peninsula. As Armenians emigrate to the Crimea from different cities and provinces of Armenia, it is not surprising that peculiarities of various artistic schools and diverse traditions of miniature painting are fused in works of art created there. Close ties with representatives of Greek and Italian Diaspora in their turn contribute to the development of Armenian art. After the fall of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, when a great number of Armenians from that region settle down for the most part in the Crimea, strong influence of the Cilician artistic tradition is observed in the art of its Armenian community.

From the outset, the miniature painting of the Crimea is characterized by a somewhat eclectic style. However, in the course of time some original features are worked out. The most distinguishing feature is the combination of linear and pictorial techniques within the same work. Miniatures occupying separate folios are treated in polychrome and shaded manner; they palette is rich in softened colours.  The prevailing combination is that of dark blue and violet with limited use of red and yellow. Ornaments are linear, using lightly shaded one or two colours. All these features are found in the works of artists like Avetis, Kirakos, Arakel and Stepanos. In their miniatures the use of bright and pasty hues, various nuances and a tendency to generalization are complemented by tiny treatment of details.

Several Armenian manuscripts illuminated in the Crimea are strongly influenced by the Palaeologan Renaissance of Byzantine art. Among them one can mention the Gospels N° 7664 and N° 7647 of the Matenadaran and N° 242 of the Mekhitarist Armenian library of Vienna. Their miniatures catch the eye by free manner of execution, expression of volume by shading and by vitality of acting figures. Mild, luminous colours, oval refined faces seem a little uncommon compared with other works of Armenian medieval miniature. Two other Gospels (Mat. No 316 and No 7699) also belong to this stylistic circle. Original mixing of Palaeologan and Cilician styles characterise them.  

Beginning from the end of the 14^th century the Armenian art of the Crimea is penetrated by spirit of Italian art. Celebrated painter Hovhannes, grandson of scribe Nater, already creates miniatures where volumes are shown using the combination of light and shade instead of colour combinations, more usual for the works of medieval art. This innovation stands out of the canonical schemes, bearing witness of well acquaintance of this Armenian painter of the 14^th century with works of contemporary Italian artists.

Numerous manuscripts illuminated in Italian cities have come down to us as well. Armenians settle down in Italy as early as in the 12^th-13^th centuries due to close commercial ties between the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and Italian cultural centres. They begin to construct churches, to found schools and scriptoria. The Matenadaran collection includes several Armenian manuscripts written and illuminated in these centres. As Armenian manuscripts are illustrated in different Italian cities at different periods of time (13^th-15^th centuries) they differ stylistically one from another. Especially noteworthy is the Bible N° 2705 kept in the Matenadaran. The illumination of this manuscript begins in Bologna at the end of the 13^th century or at the beginning of the 14^th century. It is accomplished in 1368 in Crimea. The earlier miniatures catch the eye by refinement and sophisticated taste, richness and mildness of colours, and masterful compositions. Under the influence of Western art the narrative cycle is supplemented by new themes, such as the Revelation of Saint John. 

Original artistic principles are applied to the miniatures of another manuscript copied in Perugia by scribe Yeremia at the beginning of the 14^th century (Mat. N° 7628). The style of this artist (probably the scribe himself) is strongly influenced by works of contemporary Italian masters. Ornamentation of title pages reminds those of Italian manuscripts of the same genre.

Working in Italy, Armenian painters are more and more inspired by Italian art, which experiences itself an important growth then. Only in the field of ornamentation do they remain faithful to more ancient national traditions.

The Armenian community of Iran counted thousands of Armenians too. Especially interesting are manuscripts illuminated at the early period by Avag and Mekhitar Anetsi. We already mentioned Avag. As to, Mekhitar Anetsi, his works show influence of Iranian art reflected both in depicted human types and the décor. 

The art of the Armenian community of Iran especially flourishes in the 17^th century. It is at the beginning of this century that Persian Shah Abbas ravaged the northern-east provinces of Armenia, deporting their population to Iran. Here, in proximity of Ispahan, Armenians found the town of New-Julfa that assumes shortly after a significant role in the economic life of Iran, being involved in international commercial dealings.  The situation became advantageous for developing either urban life or arts.

12. THE ARMENIAN MINIATURE PAINTING IN THE 17^th CENTURY

The 17^th century is marked by a new activity of artistic life not only in the Armenian community of New-Julfa, but also within those of other countries and Armenia itself. The reason for such conspicuous situation is the relatively peaceful relationship established between Iran and Turkey.

Three major tendencies can be observed in the Armenian miniature of the 17^th century. The first trend is connected with national archaistic traditions and manifests itself in numerous manuscripts written in scriptoria of Armenia central provinces. Restitution of ancient popular motifs is characteristic for these works, as well as memories of ancient legends often inspired by apocryphal literature. Even if interpretation of scenes is somewhat primitive, miniatures of this circle stand out for their masterly execution. The art of New-Julfa evolves in close and obvious connection with the artistic tradition of Vaspurakan. However, several artists of this school create works of original style. This particularly concerns Hakob Jughayetsi, whose career is related with scriptoria of New-Julfa, and Arakel Geghametsi, native of eastern Armenia and working in the province of Karin. Within their works, the Armenian miniature painting lives through its last period of flourishing.    

The second trend of Armenian miniature painting of the 17^th century evolves under the influence of Cilician models. Seeking refined and luxurious style, artists search after Cilician manuscripts and applied all their capacity to accurately reproduce Cilician as exactly as possible. One of the masters, whose work is closely tied with the Cilician tradition, is Nikoghayos Tzaghkarar (17^th century) from Kaffa (now Theodosia). He successfully copies several famous Cilician masterpieces as the Gospel of Eight Artists (Mat. N° 7651), the Gospel of Smbat the Constable (Mat. N° 7644), as well as the Gospel N° 2629. Using these magnificent models, the artist cultivates his own style trying to reach the mastery of Cilician artists. But, like any other copy, the works of Nikoghayos are always ungainly comparing with the originals. 

The Armenian miniature painting of the 17^th century, especially that of the Diaspora, is also influenced by Western European style.  This is particularly obvious in manuscripts created in Constantinople, Lvov, New-Julfa and the Crimea. Artistic decoration of numerous manuscripts of this time shows inspiration both from Latin illumination and gravures of early printed volumes. Among them the Gospel of 1619 (Mat. N° 351), written in Lvov and adorned with splendid miniatures, is worth mentioning. Though influence of contemporary European art is observed within the narrative cycle, ornamental parts remain relatively faithful to the traditional medieval Armenian style. 

With the invention of printing, new method of illustration is introduced: the gravure. Miniature and wall painting are replaced by easel painting of modern times.

The Armenian miniature painting is of great significance. Being the pride of the Armenian national culture, it occupies a prominent position in the treasury of world art, too.